This article describes the development and initial validation of an instrument of individual worldview which incorporates the three constructs which primarily differentiate worldview - level of explanation, causation, and observation. Results support the use of the worldview instrument as a research tool for measuring individuals' most deeply held beliefs and assumptions.

Theoretical Framework

In the past twenty years, a number of scholars and researchers have called attention to the importance of the most deeply held beliefs of individuals (Slife and Williams, 1995; Schwarz and Ogilvy, 1979; Lincoln, 1985). This collection of beliefs comprises an individual's worldview which is more deeply ingrained than attitudes, opinions, traits, and values. An individual's worldview is also more difficult to access and much harder to change than any of these attributes. An individual's worldview may be so deeply imbedded within her that she literally can see no other way.

The contents of worldview are often philosophical in nature and may include the following abbreviated list: determinism, equality, belief in the transcendent, and hierarchical ordering. Although worldview includes a variety of such beliefs, a few assumptions make the greatest difference in ascertaining an individual's worldview. These assumptions pertain to observation, causation, and level of explanation (Dent, forthcoming). The literature suggests two primary worldviews which are labelled here the traditional (TWV) and the emerging (EWV) (Ackoff, 1981; Capra, 1982). A number of writers have suggested that the acceptance of EWV assumptions is critical for a continuation in the increase of business performance and the quality of life (Begun, 1994; Wishard, 1995; Thayer, 1980; Smith, 1982). The contrasting assumptions of the TWV and EWV are shown in Table 1.

Table 1.

Assumptions of the TWV and EWV

Observation

Causation

Level of Explanation

Objective Observation

Linear Causation

Reductionism

Perspectival Observation Mutual Causation

Holism

Worldview assumption definitions

Reductionism - the belief that an entity can be divided into its composite parts and that a cumulative explanation of the composite parts fully explains the entity.

Holism - the belief that an entity can be best understood by considering it in its entirety. The entity has "characteristics which belong to the system as a whole and don't belong to any of its parts" (Clemson, 1984, p. 24). These are essentially the definitions for level of explanation suggested by Garfinkel (1991), Oppenheim and Putnam (1991), Clemson (1984, p. 24-27), Vaill (1989, p. 122), Ackoff (1981), Slife and Williams (1995), and Capra (1982, 213 and throughout).

Linear cause and effect - The expectation that the relationship between two (or more) phenomena is relatively linear (or that, for the relationship, a linear model, using few variables, serves as a useful approximation) and that temporal precedence of cause prior to effect is clearly distinguishable.

Mutual (or circular) cause and effect - The expectation that the relationship between two (or more) phenomena is heavily influenced by the presence of feedback loops. In other words, a variable may appear on both sides of the equation (meaning that cause and effect are, at least to some degree, a function of each other). These are essentially the definitions for causation suggested by Kitcher (1991), Schwartz and Ogilvy (1979, p. 14.), Clemson (1984, p. 233-235) Slife and Williams (1995) and Lincoln (1985, p. 35).

Objective observer - the belief that phenomena or information in the world are independent of the method of observation of those phenomena or information. Moreover, the phenomena or information are not altered by the act of observing.

Perspectival observer - the belief that phenomena or information in the world are dependent upon the method of observation. Moreover, the phenomena or information may be changed by the act of observing. These are essentially the distinctions in observation made by Popper (1985a), Popper (1985b), Prigogine and Stengers (1984), Waldrop (1992), Clemson (1984), Weick (1979), Lincoln (1985), Schwartz and Ogilvy (1979), and Briggs and Peat (1989).

Surprisingly, to date, apparently no empirical efforts to measure individual worldview or the three major constructs have been reported (Slife and Williams, 1995, p. 15). The only research effort which comes close is a Harvard Business Review article by Martin and Lodge (1975) who asked Harvard Business Review readers questions concerning Ideology I and Ideology II. Each of these ideologies contained several ideas. Ideology I is similar to the TWV and is provided here for illustrative purposes.

The community is no more than the sum of the individuals in it. Self-respect and fulfillment result from an essentially lonely struggle in which initiative and hard work pay off. The fit survive and if you don't survive, you are probably unfit. Property rights are sacred guarantor of individual rights, and, to satisfy consumer desires in an open market, the uses of property are best controlled by competition. The least government is the best. Reality is perceived and understood through the specialized activities of experts who dissect and analyze in objective study (p. 15).

A thorough review of Tests in Print IV (1994) and The Twelfth Mental Measurements Yearbook (Conoley and Impara, 1994) was conducted using the following terms: analysis, causation, feedback, (w)holism, linear, mutual, objective, reductionism, subjective, synthesis, system, and worldview. Six relevant instruments were found. The names of the instruments and the underlying assumption they purport to tap are listed in Table 3.

Table 3.

Available Measurement Instruments in the Topical Area of this Research

Comprehensive Personality Profile (a secondary trait)

Meyer-Kendall Assessment Survey

Taylor-Johnson Temperament Analysis

Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey

Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery, Test of Cognitive Ability

California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory

Objectivity

Analysis - Synthesis

Systematicity

The Taylor-Johnson Temperament Analysis instrument defines objective as "fair-minded, reasonable, logical" and subjective as "emotional, illogical, self-absorbed." On the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory, the systematicity scale "measures being organized, orderly, focused, and diligent in inquiry. No particular kind of organization, e.g. linear or non-linear, is given priority on the CCTDI." Clearly none of these existing instruments is at all a useful source of items for this research.

Because no test of worldview exists, this study developed a paper-and-pencil instrument which measures an individual's worldview as defined by the three major constructs - observation, causation, and level of explanation.

Measurement Instrument Development and Validation

Study 1

A 24-item Likert scale instrument was developed to test:

• the feasibility of the conceptual framework, and
• the potential response bias about expressing TWV beliefs.

This version of the instrument was administered to 57 working professionals who all had at least two years of work experience. The conceptual framework was found to be worthy of further consideration. Of 57 respondents, 26 scored an EWV perspective, 30 a TWV, and one in the middle, indicating that people were willing to express TWV beliefs.

This study also created within the researcher a desire to search for a way to achieve more shared agreement about the nature of the measurement items. Also, greater assurance was sought that items generated did not all fall in a narrow range of any of the constructs.

Study 2

In order to achieve these objectives, a second study was conducted in which the instrument combined aspects of a Thurstone-type approach and a Likert-type approach (Butcher, 1974, p. 258). The Thurstone-type features retained were, equal interval scaling over a wide range of response and the process for identifying unambiguous questions which have small standard deviations. The Likert method of scoring was employed because of its strength in allowing for a range of response.

Step #1 - Survey Creation

Scale items were created from brainstorming sessions with several colleagues and by scanning relevant sources in the literature. The objective in this case was to find statements that could be directly translated into items. The item, "Truth is a matter of fitting words to the world" is essentially a paraphrase of Lakoff and Johnson (1980, p. 200). "Acting should precede planning because by acting we take part in constructing the context for our plans" is adapted from the work of Karl Weick as quoted by Wheatley (1992, p. 37). Likewise, "A full characterization of each individual's behavior logically implies a knowledge of group behavior; there is nothing left out." is a direct quote of Kenneth Arrow's included in Garfinkel (1991, p. 445).

Ultimately, through all of these methods, a total of nearly 200 items was generated. These items were then tested for clarity, appropriateness, understandability and other forms of suitability by analysis of several people running the gamut of sophisticated to novice reviewer. From this review items were deleted or reworded.

One hundred eighty items (55 for Observation, 62 for Causation, 63 for Explanation - exceeding the target of 150 items) were selected for continuation to the next phase.
Step #2 - Judges Meeting

The ensuing three validity reviews were provided by an assembled group of judges. Thirteen judges (knowledgeable at the doctoral level) were convened to work on the survey construction. The judges accomplished three important tasks.

• Further pilot-testing of the items

• Step #2a - "Reverse" coding of the items. In this step, the judges were given the full list of items, randomized, and asked to map the items onto the three constructs.
• Step #2b - Thurstone ranking of the items.

Thirteen individuals provided data that are used in the analysis below. The average age of the judges was 41-50 and they averaged 16-20 years of work experience. One judge was African-American, one Asian, and eleven White. Six of the judges were female and seven were male. Two of the judges reported that their formative years were influenced by a culture other than the United States and these were the cultures of China, West Africa (Liberia) and Haiti (one judge listed two countries).

Step #2a - Reverse Coding

The reverse coding step provided greater assurance of validity. Thirteen judges completed the reverse coding task. One judge used the same response for 63% (113) of the items. This judge is a white male in his 50s. In the discussion that follows, the results from the single judge whose responses were atypical were not used.

Step #2b - Item Ranking

After the judges reverse coded and tested the wording of the items, they ranked them according to how intensely the item measured the construct. Of the 12 judges who completed this task, again there was one who had responses that were inconsistent with the others. This judge is also a white male, age 51-60. The "corrected judge total correlation" for judge 12 for all 141 items was .3746, substantially lower than the next-least consistent judge, at .7412. Cronbach's alpha for the 141 items was .9619. Alphas for Observation, Causation, and Explanation were.9653, .9589, and .9653, respectively.

Step #3 - Item Elimination

Five criteria were used in determining which items to retain based on the judges' ranking.

1. Lower standard deviations of the means

2. Coverage of the scale

3. Agreement with the researchers' rankings

4. A subsequent reading of the item to determine whether it was felt to be one of the better items.

5. Balance of TWV and EWV items for a given construct.

The standard deviations of the means ranged from 0.7 to 3.5 with 89% of the standard deviations below 2.4. Based on the five criteria for item elimination an additional 22 questions were eliminated by the Thurstone-ranking step.

Step #4 - Survey Administration

The survey was administered to 200 respondents with at least three years of career-oriented work experience in an organization. Moreover, each respondent either had, or was completing, graduate education in management. The demographic characteristics of the 177 of the respondents who provided them are included in Table 4.

Table 4

Demographic Data about the Survey Respondents

21-30 - 43%

31-40 - 33%

41-50 - 11%

51-60 - 7%

61+ - 5%

Years of full-time

work experience

3-7 - 43%

8-14 - 27%

15-21 - 13%

22-28 - 9%

29+ - 9%

White - 89%

African- - 2%

American

Other - 5%

Hispanic - 3%

Pacific - 1%

Islander

Female - 42%

Male - 58%n=177

Questions were omitted if they were unanswered by at least five percent of the respondents. Next product-moment correlations were computed, and an alpha was calculated for the items in each of the hypothesized constructs. The alphas for Causation, Observation, and Explanation were 0.8365, 0.8685, and 0.8747, respectively.

Items were eliminated at this stage if the corrected item-total correlation was not at least 0.3. In the case of reductionism, however, which entered this step with the greatest number of items, 28, the cutoff could be made higher, at 0.33. A total of 33 items were removed because not enough respondents answered them, or their correlations were too low.

Step #6 - Principal Components Analysis (PCA)

The remaining 86 items were included in a principal components analysis (PCA). The factor structure which best defines the space is a 26-factor solution. This solution explains 59.4% of the common variance, produces communalities mostly in the 0.55 to 0.7 range, and provides 17 factors with an eigenvalue greater than 1.0. This orthogonal solution was produced using a varimax rotation. Oblique rotations were also computed, using direct oblimin. These rotations revealed very little correlation among the factors, and provided no assistance in developing a suitable interpretation.

This ideal theoretical orthogonal solution, however, was too fragmented to be useful. With only 86 items, the average factor size was approximately three items. The factors, however, did contain items as hypothesized.

A scree plot analysis suggested that the interpretation should be limited to ten factors, at most. A six-factor solution provides the best simple structure. The communalities are still in an acceptable range, mostly 0.3 to 0.5, and 31% of the common variance is explained. All six factors have an eigenvalue above 2.3. Again, the unexpected finding is that the six-factor oblique solution is essentially the same as the six-factor orthogonal solution, indicating that no meaningful correlation exists among the factors.

The next step was to determine whether it was possible to interpret the six factors since only three had been hypothesized. Upon examination, relatively obvious explanations for the extra factors surfaced. One factor was dominated by items which are certainly about observation, but specifically about observation, as it pertains to the appraisal or assessment of something. Another factor was dominated by Explanation, but specifically as it pertains to the context provided by the mission of a particular organization.

An interpretation for two other factors was not as obvious as the two identified thus far. Still, only a few moments of reflection suggested the following differentiation. In one factor, nearly all of the items focus on the reduction, or division taking place, without any reference to possible interrelationships or a broader context. For example, "it is not important for there to be fundamental 'building blocks' in nature" and performance is best obtained when "each department performs as well as it can." This factor will be labeled "Explanation: Pieces." Likewise, the items loading the other factor nearly all hint at the possibility of interrelationships or a broader context. For example, "you have to understand the wider world in which it operates," and "one or more group abilities emerge..." This factor will be named "Explanation: Connections."

Step #7 - Determine Final Instrument

Cronbach alpha coefficients for the final instrument are listed on the diagonal in Table 5. The off-diagonal entries are the intercorrelations of the scales of worldview.

Table 5

Cronbach Alpha Coefficients and Intercorrelations of Scales of Worldview

Causation (.76)

Observation .19* (.75)

Exp: Pieces .45*** .21** (.78)

Exp: Connections .02 .20** .40*** (.78)

The final form of the instrument includes, for each factor, the first twelve items with factor loadings of at least 0.3.⁽¹⁾ The instrument of individual worldview appears in Table 6.

Table 6

47-Item Worldview Instrument, Scale Cronbach Alpha Coefficients, Means, Standard Deviations, and Corrected Item-Scale Correlations

It is not important for there to be fundamental Abuilding blocks@ in nature.

*Big problems should be broken into pieces to solve them more easily.

*An organization will perform as well as possible if each department (i.e. suborganization) performs as well as it can.

*When studying an organization, it is important to study a section of it at a time.

*If every member of a work team performs at his/her maximum level, the work team will be functioning at its maximum level.

*All social psychology can be explained using principles of individual psychology.

Dividing a task into parts is not the best way to analyze it.

*When learning a complicated task, I prefer to learn pieces of the task separately, and then try to put it all together.

Each thing should be defined in relationship to something else, not by its inherent properties.

If an organization has a major problem in one department, it is better solved by a cross-functional team of experts selected from the entire organization than a team of employees in that department.

*Most things that happen in organizations can be traced to their root causes if we took the time.

2.43

3.03

3.83

3.88

4.12

5.17

3.54

3.68

3.33

4.25

3.06

1.56

1.34

1.51

1.36

1.69

1.29

1.39

1.64

1.48

1.45

1.61

.35

.46

.43

.42

.34

.43

.45

.36

.26

.34

.47

Explanation: Connections

In order to understand an organization, you have to understand the wider world in which it operates.

If a group is solving a problem, one or more group abilities may emerge that are not present in any individual group member.

*A chief executive officer (CEO) can basically do his/her job without knowing the mission of the organization.

An effective organization functions more like a living being than a computer.

*When studying a beautiful painting, it is important to view a section of the painting at a time.

6.08

5.85

6.36

5.69

5.39

1.01

.87

1.05

1.07

1.37

.40

.47

.34

.47

.33

My work performance is higher if I understand the big picture which my work fits into.

*It is more important for military squad members to be trained in their roles separately than for them to train together.

The whole is more than the sum of its parts.

*It is more important for firefighters to be trained in their roles separately than for them to train together.

*Company C is formed by the merger of Company A and Company B. Company C can expect annual profits equal to Company A's annual profit plus Company B's annual profit.

It is more important for football players to practice as a team than it is for them to practice their positions separately.

*A government employee=s spirituality does not enter into his or her workplace performance.

6.02

5.72

5.62

5.57

5.77

5.50

5.44

.85

1.11

1.48

1.10

1.02

1.34

1.37

.39

.49

.45

.41

.40

.34

.33

Causation

*If a team of vegetable pickers gets behind schedule on its work, adding extra pickers will speed up the job.

*If a team of mortgage application processors gets behind schedule on its work, adding extra processors will speed up the job.

If an organization lowers its prices, it will not increase its sales.

*Decreasing the drug problem in this country will also decrease the crime rate, decrease the rate of births out of wedlock, and decrease the unemployment rate.

*The higher an organization's advertising budget the higher its sales revenue.

*An employee who receives an above-average pay increase will work harder.

*The times in my life when I've worked the hardest are when I've achieved the most.

If a team of construction workers gets behind schedule on its work, adding extra workers will not speed up the job.

*Organizations should grow larger to obtain greater economies of scale.

The amount of effort I put into a task does not determine how well the task turns out.

It is likely that if two employees are achieving similar levels of exceptional performance, they are not using similar methods and approaches.

*Tax cuts for upper class income earners also benefit the middle and lower class income earners.

3.41

3.21

2.84

3.51

4.77

4.35

3.42

3.49

4.70

3.48

4.07

4.30

1.48

1.46

1.28

1.69

1.38

1.33

1.74

1.46

1.30

1.81

1.63

1.74

.48

.49

.43

.42

.39

.42

.43

.40

.43

.38

.31

.32

Observation

Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. In other words, different people identify different things as beautiful.

For things that happen in organizations, there is usually more than one side to every story.

People will interpret organizational events and situations differently.

Apparent facts can change depending on the way in which they are observed or measured.

There are rarely facts that everyone agrees on. Apparent facts will change depending upon people's perspectives and biases.

You have to Awalk in someone else=s shoes@ (in other words, to live life from his or her perspective) to really understand her or him.

All people look at the world through their own "glasses."

Truth is not absolute or objective, but derived from people=s understanding of things.

What is most important about any organizational event is not what happened but what it means.

The language of the imagination, especially metaphor, is necessary for expressing the unique and most personally significant aspects of our experience.

When important issues arise at work, my own impressions and intuitions are my guides for action.

*Anyone who closely studies this country should agree on its major problems.

6.26

6.02

6.17

5.74

4.98

5.06

6.01

4.82

4.90

5.16

5.03

5.21

.91

.90

.76

1.05

1.49

1.35

1.16

1.91

1.23

1.34

1.29

1.39

.31

.40

.36

.37

.46

.31

.33

.41

.33

.38

.33

.38

Limitations of the Study

Every effort has been made to make this research study comprehensive, thorough, and applicable. Still, any study has limitations. Foremost on the list of limitations for this study is the usefulness of the conceptualization of the TWV and the EWV. The measurement instrument is dependent on these different worldviews. Furthermore, the original items were limited to the three constructs that are plausible proxies for worldview.

The study also has limited generalizability because the sample consists of subgroups which are internally more homogeneous than the population and the total sample size was 200. Moreover, because of the exploratory nature of this study, no attempt has been made to present evidence for criterion-related validity.

Another limitation of the study listed is that the research topic is about the existence of two different worldviews, yet it is studied using tools from only the TWV. This is, in fact, a serious limitation. We would also note that Clegg (1990, p. 21) has suggested that the analysis of postmodern social forms such as the EWV can be conducted with or without postmodern methods.

Finally, this research effort uses principal components analysis as evidence of construct validity. This type of factor analysis was used because it "is an essential first step in the [exploratory] investigation of complex areas of human psychology" (Kline, 1994, p. 9). Further studies could test the model using confirmatory factor analysis. It would also be interesting to perform a convergent and divergent analysis by administering the scale to two groups with "known" worldviews. Although at this point, we have encouraging results, further efforts should also be made to generalize these findings over a larger sample. The scale should be administered to larger, more diverse sample populations.

The instrument can also be refined to include more dimensions of worldview. Although three constructs were identified as the most important representatives (Dent, forthcoming), the instrument would only be enhanced by the inclusion of additional dimensions. A candidate for the fourth most important construct could have assumptions of "competition" and "cooperation." In other words, do people assume "that the world is hostile, that we are in a constant struggle for survival, that the consequence of error is death, that the environment seeks our destruction" (Wheatley and Kellner-Rogers, 1996, p. 11)? Or, do people assume that "we are here to create, not to defend ... [that we are in ] a world that delights in its explorations. A world that makes it up as it goes along. A world that welcomes us into the exploration as good partners" (Wheatley and Kellner-Rogers, 1996, p. 11)?

Another enhancement which would add to the utility of the instrument would be to establish criterion-related validity. For example, suppose that EWV assumptions are more helpful in very dynamicclassrooms. Then, people with high scores on the EWV assumptions might correlate with job performance in those environments. Likewise, people with high scores on the TWV assumptions might be those who perform well in stable work environments. If correlations such as these could be identified, the Scale could be an additional tool to assist an organization in matching people to jobs they will succeed in and enjoy.

Ackoff, Russell L. (1981). Creating the corporate future: Plan or be planned for. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Begun, James W. (December 1994) "Chaos and complexity: frontiers of organization science" Journal of management inquiry. Vol. 3, No. 4, 329-335.

Briggs, J. and Peat, F. David (1989). Turbulent mirror: An illustrated guide to chaos theory and the science of wholeness. New York: Harper and Row.

Butcher, H. J. (1974). "A note on the scale product and related methods of scoring attitude scales." Scaling: A sourcebook for behavioral scientists. Maranell, Gary M. (ed.) Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company.

Capra, F. (1982). The turning point: science, society, and the rising culture. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Clegg, Stewart R. (1990). Modern organizations: Organization studies in the postmodern world. London: Sage Publications Ltd.

Clemson, B. (1984). Cybernetics: a new management tool. Tunbridge Wells, Kent, England: Abacus House.

Conoley, Jane Close and Impara, James C., Jr. (Eds.) (1994). The twelfth mental measurement yearbook, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Dent, E. B. (1997). The design, development and evaluation of measures of individual worldview. Dissertation, The George Washington University, The School of Business and Public Management.

Dent, E. B. (forthcoming). The changes in worldview needed for organizational success.

Fondas, Nanette (January 1997). "Feminization unveiled: Management qualities in contemporary writings" Academy of management review. Vol. 22, No. 1. pp. 257-282.

Garfinkel, Alan (1991) "Reductionism." The philosophy of science. Boyd, Richard, Gasper, Philip, and Trout, J.D. (eds.) Cambridge: The MIT Press.

Jacobs, Thomas Owen and Jaques, Elliott (1987). "Leadership in complex systems." Human productivity and enhancement: Organizations, personnel, and decision making, vol. 2. Zeidner, Joseph, ed. New York: Praeger.

Kitcher, Philip (1991) "The pragmatics of explanation." The philosophy of science. Boyd, Richard, Gasper, Philip, and Trout, J.D. (eds.) Cambridge: The MIT Press.

Kline, Paul (1994). An easy guide to factor analysis. London: Routledge.

Lakoff, George and Johnson, Mark (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Lincoln, Y. S., ed. (1985). "Introduction." Organizational theory and inquiry. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.

Martin, William F. and Lodge, George Cabot (1975, November). "Our society in 1985 - business may not like it." Harvard business review. pp. 143-152.

Oppenheim, Paul and Putnam, Hilary (1991) "Unity of science as a working hypothesis." The philosophy of science. Boyd, Richard, Gasper, Philip, and Trout, J.D. (eds.) Cambridge: The MIT Press.

Popper, Karl R. (1985a). "Truth and approximation to truth." Popper selections. Miller, David (ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 181-198.

Popper, Karl R. (1985b). "Realism." Popper selections. Miller, David (ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 220-225.

Prigogine, Ilya and Stengers, Isabelle (1984). Order out of chaos: Man's new dialogue with nature. Toronto: Bantam Books.

Schwartz, P. and Ogilvy, J. (1979). The emergent paradigm: Changing patterns of thought and belief. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.

Slife, Brent D. and Williams, Richard N. (1995). What's behind the research: Discovering hidden assumptions in the behavioral sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Vaill, P. B. (1989). Managing as a performing art: New ideas for a world of chaotic change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Vaill, P. B. (1996). Learning as a way of being: Strategies for survival in a world of permanent white water. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Waldrop, M. M. (1992). Complexity: The emerging science at the edge of order and chaos. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Weick, Karl E. (1979) The social psychology of organizing, (2^nd edition). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Weick, Karl E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Wheatley, M. J. (1992). Leadership and the new science: Learning about organization from an orderly universe. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Wheatley, M. J. and Kellner-Rogers, M. (1996). A simpler way. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

White, O. F. (1990). "Reframing the authority/participation debate" Chapter 6 in Refounding Public Administration by G. L. Wamsley et al. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. pp. 182-245.

Wilber, Ken (1995). Sex, ecology, spirituality: The spirit of evolution. Boston: Shambala.

1. One item which doesn't seem to fit was dropped.