Renaissance, 1400-1700 |
IntroductionBecause European artists and writers of this period tried to recapture the brilliant cultural achievements of the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, scholars refer to the period stretching from roughly 1400 to about 1700 as the "Renaissance," which literally means "rebirth" in French. The prevailing attitude among intellectuals of the time was humanistic; that is, unlike their medieval predecessors, whose eyes were generally pointed upward toward God, the men and women of the Renaissance were guilty of many sidelong glances at their fellow human beings, as well as the world in which they lived. This attitude was closely intertwined with many important developments, including the Reformation, which marked a turn away from church authority, and the scientific revolution, in which Galileo and Francis Bacon demonstrated the capacity of humans to understand and control nature.This period produced some of the world's greatest sculptures--notably
Michelangelo's David (1504)--and paintings, including Michelangelo's frescoes
on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel (1512) and Leonardo da Vinci's Mona
Lisa (c. 1503-1506). Among the literary masterpieces written during the
Renaissance are William Shakespeare's plays, Miguel de Cervantes's Don
Quixote (1605, 1615), and John Milton's Paradise Lost (1667).
Beginning around 1450, printers such as Johannes Gutenberg and William
Caxton reproduced books with movable type, thus making the works of the
Renaissance much more accessible and thus influential than medieval literature,
which had to circulate in manuscript form.
Renaissance PoetryRead each of the following poems. If the title appears as a link, you can find it by clicking on the link. Otherwise, you can find it in Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama on the page number in parentheses. In some cases, the poem is available both on the Web and in the text book. Use the questions below the list of poems to guide your reading and interpretation.
Study questions
The Tragedy of Othello, The Moor of VeniceAct 1
Act 2
Act 3
Act 4
Act 5
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For starters, we must wonder why Iago decides to put his plan in motion. In other words, we perhaps feel compelled to understand his motivation. Kate, Jennifer, Stephanie, Crystal, Ben, and Becky provide some insights into this subject, explaining various reasons why Iago may want revenge on Othello. While Iago does come right out and say why he hates Othello in more than one instance, his true motivation seems to me to be even more complex. For example, why does he need two reasons to do what he does? When someone offers more than one reason for an action, I sometimes am suspicious. It seems as if he or she is trying to make a case--perhaps to himself or herself--rather than simply explaining a legitimate reason. Furthermore, note what Othello says in Act 5 when he learns of Iago's duplicity: "I look down towards his feet; but that's a fable. / If that thou be'st a devil, I cannot kill thee" (5.2.294-295). This line, along other material in the play, suggests that Iago can be interpreted, at least on one level, as an embodiment of evil, even a symbol of Satan himself. Indeed, like the serpent in the Garden of Eden, Iago is a master of language and uses it to manipulate another character to sin.
Whatever his motivation, Iago puts into action a plan that itself is complex, as Jacob's and Monica's overviews reveal. For example, Melanie identifies several racial epithets that Iago directs at Othello in his conversation with Brabantio. While she attributes these epithets to Iago's jealousy, I think we also might see such epithets as merely attempts to provoke Brabantio. Furthermore, Theo and Vonti argue that Iago uses suggestive comments about Desdemona to arouse Cassio's interest in her. Deane notes that Iago, while he superficially warns Othello against becoming jealous, actually is responsible for "planting the seeds of distrust" in Othello's mind. Indeed, the warning Iago issues here fits well in his overall plan because his method is to advance while seeming to retreat. In other words, Iago continually pretends not to want to accuse Cassio or to arouse Othello's jealousy because he wishes to remain a trustworthy source. Some of you who have taken English 106 here may remember Aristotle's notion of "ethos," a speaker's appeal to his or audience's sense of character. Iago tries to establish a strong ethos with Othello by not coming on too strong. After all, if he had accused Cassio boldly at the outset, Othello may have suspected Iago of ulterior motives. Finally, as Starlet astutely observes, Desdemona's own virtue actually entangles her in Iago's web because her pleading for Cassio actually comes across to Othello as evidence of her infidelity.
Just as we inquire into Iago's motivation, we may wonder what could possibly drive Othello to murder his own wife, whom he obviously cherishes. Andy identifies one important factor in his analysis of one of Othello's speeches in Act 4, Scene 1. As he suggests, Othello's jealousy has begun to overwhelm him at this point. We might go so far as to say that this jealousy has caused him to lose his sense of reason. Note also a particular word that Othello repeats: "handkerchief." Indeed, this speech and other material in the play suggest that the handkerchief was the factor that sent Othello over the edge. Why? For one thing, Othello thinks that seeing is believing; thus, while Iago's manipulations have driven him to doubt Desdemona, Othello demands "ocular proof." The handkerchief seems to Othello to be this proof and thus satisfies his need. Furthermore, as Susan points out and illustrates with several excellent examples, the handkerchief symbolizes the love between Othello and Desdemona. One of my former students once compared it to a wedding ring. Because of this association, the thought that Desdemona lost it or even gave it to another man arouses Othello's anger. In the highly significant soliloquy at the beginning of Act 5, Scene 2, Othello actually names a reason for killing his wife, as Monica explains. She writes: "He justifies his plan for murder with the statement, "Yet she must die, else she'll betray more men" (5.2 6). I think Monica chose just the right word here for I think that this supposed reason for the murder is just a way for Othello to justify something he is determined to do for a very different reason. He kills her, I believe, because he feels jealous, angry, and betrayed, but he rationalizes that he is doing a service to mankind by eliminating someone who could hurt others. Here, as he does elsewhere, Shakespeare expertly captures the complexity of human psychology.