by Amanda West, student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke, 1998

Introduction

    The way we speak and write tells people how well educated we are. By learning how to apply what we have learned in our study of the English language, we are able to assert to others that we have an understanding of the words and styles we choose to use.  This concept of usage--the way that the detail, choice of words, and structure are used to convey ideas--helps determine the way others perceive us.
    Prescriptive and descriptive grammar deals with different aspects of usage as it occurs.  Prescriptive grammarians prescribe "rules" that govern how we "should" speak.  Descriptive grammarians simply describe the conventions we use in our everyday speaking and writing.  Though neither are necessarily right or wrong in the operations, this Web site looks at how the rules of prescriptive grammar are applied.  Remember, there are certain rules that descriptive grammarians say are o.k. to break.  There is nothing innately wrong with splitting an infinitive or beginning a sentence with a conjunction, but some people may take offense to certain acts they have been taught are wrong.  The term "usage" refers to the rules that prescriptive grammarians apply to language.
 
 

Definitions

• infinitive:  the familiar base form of a verb, preceded by the word "to," as in "to study"
• split infinitive:  the insertion of a word within an infinitive (between the two parts of the verb)
• split constructions:  the occurrence of either a verb being separated from its parts, a subject being separated from a verb, or a verb being separated from its complement, causing the sentence to become unclear or incoherent
• dangling modifier:  occurs when a modifier does not modify anything within the sentence
• conjunction:  a joiner that links words, phrases, and clauses
• comma splice:  also known as a comma fault.  This occurs when a comma is mistakenly used to join two independent clauses without either a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon.

 
A split infinitive occurs when a word is placed between the two parts of the verb.  While prescriptive grammarians frown on split infinitives, many speakers and writers commonly use them.  In some cases, the infinitive may be split to retain clarity, and it may actually improve the sentence overall.

Murders are expected to more than double next year. (split infinitive)
Murders are expected more than to double next year. (intact infinitive)

The sentences are the exact same words, but the first sentence is clearer because of where the
word  is placed.

Dangling Modifier

    A modifier is dangling when it does not  modify anything within the sentence.  For example, consider the following sentence:  Knowing that it could not win, the horse was pulled from the competition.  The participial phrase "knowing that it could not win" has nothing to modify.  By changing the sentence, students can retain a sentence's coherency.  Knowing that it could not win, the jockey decided to disqualify her horse.  We now have a subject that is modified by a participial phrase.

Conjunctions

    Often as students of the English language, we are taught to never begin a sentence with a conjunction.  Unfortunately, we were not taught correctly.  There are many cases when this is acceptable, provided that the sentence in question is a complete thought, contains a subject and a verb, and is not a fragment.  There are two classes of conjunctions, known as coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.
    Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect units of equal status and function.  For example, in the sentence "My friends call me silly, but I don't mind," "but" is used to connect two equal clauses.  A semicolon could also be used, as in the sentence "My friends call me silly; however, I don't mind."
    A subordinating conjunction is used to connect a subordinate clause to its superordinate clause (a term used to describe a clause that contains another clause). The subordinators because, if, and although are perhaps the most recognized as the marks of subordinate clauses.
    The use of a conjunction at the beginning of a sentence is a usage question.  While some prescriptivists advise writers to use conjunctions only in the middle of sentences, there is nothing "grammatically wrong" with beginning a sentence with the coordinating conjunctions "but" or "and" or the conjunctive adverb "however," since conjunctions are joiners.  The effect can be redundant if used too often, and care must be taken to avoid sentence fragments.

 Prepositions

    Since we first began learning the rules of grammar, we have all been taught never to end a sentence with a preposition.  In some cases, this is good advice.  For example, in the sentence "I am walking to.", an object is needed in order to complete the sentence.  Attempting to follow this rule, however, can lead writers astray. Let's see what turns up, Darkness closed in, and The food ran out all end in what at first glance are thought to be prepositions.  It may be noticed that there is no object (nor is one needed).  When a word that is usually a preposition does not have an object, the word is an adverb or a particle.

Sentences may be ended with a preposition as long as they are clear.  In the following sentence, the word "with," which is often a preposition, appears at the end. Ignorance is something with which I will not put up with. Many times, people will mistake a phrasal verb for a preposition.  In this sentence, "put up with" is a phrasal verb.  Remember that if the phrase can be reworded by substituting a single word which has the same meaning, it is probably a phrasal verb. Here, for example, we could substitute "tolerate" for "put up with." Thus, "put up with" is a phrasal verb in this sentence.

Sexism in Language

    For centuries, the words "he" and "man" have been used to mean people, all people, including women.  As we become a society of enlightened humans, the language we use must be made more general so no one person feels excluded.  Remember, just as man does not include woman, a gender-inclusive word is not always gender-inclusive.  However, general references do need to be.
    When speaking of a topic that would traditionally be described with sexist words, find another word that will considered more inclusive.  An example from When Words Collide by Lauren Kessler and Duncan McDonald helps make the situation clearer.
 

Instead of :                                                             Use:

man, men	person, people
mankind	human beings, humanity
founding fathers	forebearers
manpower	workforce, employees
to man (verb)	to operate
man and wife	husband and wife
men and girls	boys and girls OR men and women
fireman	firefighter
salesman	salesperson
congressman	representative

 
Commonly Misused Words
 
    Just as with any language, native speakers may become confused because of the enormous size of their language.  Unfortunately, instead of learning the definitions of words and using them as they were intended to be used, speakers change the definitions.  For example, enormity means "wickedness," while enormous is defined as "large in size."  However, because of constant confusion leading to misuse, "enormity" is also defined in terms of size in some dictionaries.  Always be careful, and if you aren't completely sure of a word's meaning, look it up in the dictionary.
 

• irregardless:  the word you create when you add the negative prefix ir-, which means "not," to regardless, which means "without regard for."  In other words, a double negative has been developed.  In simple terms, this word does not exist!
• principle/principal:  A principal, both as a noun and an adjective,  means first in authority.  A principle, which is only a noun, means "a truth, doctrine, or rule of conduct."  (Hint:  A principal can be your "pal.")
• can/may:  "can" denotes ability, while "may" can express possibility or permission.
• elicit/illicit:  Elicit, a verb, means "to bring out" or "draw forth."  Illicit, an adjective, describes something as illegal or unlawful.
• hanged/hung:  Hang is a verb, an action which is conjugated depending upon the thing that is hanging.  The conjugation of "hang," "hung," and "hung" refers to objects.

        The conjugation of "hang," "hanged," and "hanged" refers to people, such as in executions or suicides.
            She hanged herself using her shoestrings.

    There are scores of other words that are commonly misused.  Any time you have a question about word usage, be sure to check with your dictionary first.  The Handbook of Good English by Edward D. Johnson and When Words Collide by Lauren Kessler and Duncan McDonald both contain words which are often misused.
 
 
Exercises

Correct the following sentences and explain why the correction was needed. Not every sentence contains a usage problem.

1.  Before going to the movies, the kitchen was cleaned, and the dog was fed.

2.  The salesmen are going to Atlanta for a conference in November.

3.  The council approved the resolution, the mayor vetoed it the next day.

4.  However late you plan on being, please call first.

5.  I am planning to before I go to bed study.

6.  Irregardless of the future, I am having fun now.

7.  Because I want to go.

8.  Everyone deserves to make it on her own.

Click here for answers.

Bibliography

Johnson, Edward D.  The Handbook of Good English.  New York:  Simon and Schuster, 1991.

Kessler, Lauren, and Duncan McDonald.  When Words Collide. 3rd ed. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1992.

(Both books listed above give different examples of style and usage and lists of words that are easily confused.)

McArthur, Tom, ed.  The Oxford Companion to the English Language.  New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Strunk, William, and E.B. White.  The Elements of Style. 3rd ed.  New York:  MacMillan Publishing Company, 1979.

(The Elements of Style and The Oxford Companion to the English Language help explain rules of usage and give examples within the text.)

Edited by Mark Canada