Life

Identity

• Resident of Missouri, Pennsylvania, New York City, and several other places
• worked on a ship that traveled to Africa and Europe

author of poetry, novels, plays
• major figure of Harlem Renaissance

Chronology

• 1902: born in Joplin, Missouri
• c.1916: moves to Cleveland, Ohio, where he lives with his mother and stepfather
• spends a year in Mexico with his father
• studies at Columbia University in New York City
• 1921: "The Negro Speaks of Rivers"
• 1926: The Weary Blues
• 1927: Fine Clothes for the Jew
• 1929: graduates from Lincoln University in Pennsylvania
• 1930: Not Without Laughter
• 1931: The Negro Mother
• 1932: The Dream Keeper
• 1932: Scottsboro Limited
• 1932-1933: lives in Russia
• 1934: The Ways of White Folks
• 1936: Mulatto
• 1938: A New Song
• 1940: The Big Sea
• 1941: Shakespeare in Harlem
• 1947: Fields of Wonder
• 1949: One-Way Ticket
• 1950: The Barrier
• 1950: Simple Speaks His Mind
• 1951: Montage of a Dream Deferred
• 1956: I Wonder as I Wander
• 1958: Tambourines to Glory
• 1961: Ask Your Mama
• 1962: Fight for Freedom
• 1963: Something in Common
• 1963: Simply Heavenly

Work

Afro-American Fragments

• What associations do rivers have? Why might Hughes have chosen to refer to them in "The Negro Speaks of Rivers"?
• Read "Aunt Sue's Stories" aloud. What techniques does Hughes use to create striking sound features in the poem?
• Identity is a common theme in many literary works by African-Americans. How does Hughes address it in "Negro" and other poems?
• Analyze the conceit in "American Heartbreak."
• Who is John Brown? How does recognizing this allusion help you understand the poem "October 16"? What other allusion is at work in the phrase "died / For your sake"?
• Analyze the reference to "my dream" in "As I Grew Older" and other poems, such as "Harlem." What is the dream? Where else have you encountered the word "dream" in American culture?
• ". . . [T]he length of the lines becomes longer at the end of the poem, and the lines make the shape of a river" (Barham 10/31/96).
• "My People": "The night, stars, and sun are metaphors for his people's dark faces (like the night), bright eyes (like the stars), and strong, burning souls (like the sun)" (Catt 10/29/96).

Feet of Jesus

• How and why does Hughes use dialect in "Feet o' Jesus" and other poems in this section?
• In what ways is "Sunday Morning Prophecy" an oral poem? Read it aloud. How does reading the poem this way differ from reading it silently? What other poems have distinctly oral features? Why might Hughes be interested in oratory?
• How does Hughes use visual effects, that is the shape of the poem, in "Angels Wings"? See "Easter Wings," a poem by the 17th-century English poet George Herbert.
• Analyze the metaphors in "Spirituals." What patterns do you see in them? Why might Hughes have chosen them? Consider the importance of traditions and family for many African-Americans. If you have seen or read Roots, apply what you have learned from this work to some of Hughes' poetry.

Shadow of the Blues

• Educate yourself a little about jazz, spirituals, and blues music. What are the distinctive features about each form? When did it emerge? What are its roots? Who are the major jazz and blues musicians? Use this new understanding to analyze "The Weary Blues" and other poems in this section. What musical conventions does Hughes employ in these poems and why?
• What role does locale play in "Could Be," "Reverie on the Harlem River," and other poems?
• In what poems does Hughes employ humor or irony? What purpose do these devices serve?
• What is the wish of the speaker of "As Befits a Man"? Why does he have this wish?

Magnolia Flowers

• Review some of the literary devices that Walt Whitman used in Leaves of Grass. Which of these devices does Hughes employ in poems such as "Daybreak in Alabama"?
• Where in this section does Hughes address miscegenation? What does he say about it? Why might this subject be important to many African-Americans?
• What is the irony in "Ku Klux"?
• What is a "share-cropper"? How does understanding this term help you to interpret the poem "Share-Croppers?"
• Who is "Uncle Tom," and how does this allusion function in this poem?
• "'Cross' is a poem basically about the narrator's life as a mixture of both the white and black races. His mother is black and his father is white. As a result of being such a mixture and seeing his two parents live such different lives, the narrator himself has trouble understanding his personal life. To an extent, he doesn't understand how he fits into this world" (Brooks 10/31/96).
• "While reading another of Hughes' poems, I could not help but make comparisons between his writing style and the style Whitman used. 'Daybreak in Alabama' is a prime example of the similar styles, as evidenced by Hughes cataloging the characteristics of Alabama: pine needles, red clay, tall trees, and the people who reside there. He speaks of all races and 'touching everybody with kind fingers.' This reminds me of Whitman's theme of love of humankind" (Hundley 10/31/96).

Madam to You

• Why does Alberta K. Johnson insist on being called "Madam"?
• Why do you think her name occurs so many times in these poems?
• Interpret this stanza in "Madam and the Rent Man": "He said, Madam, / It's not up to me. / I'm just the agent, / Don't you see?"
• How would you characterize Madam?
• "She worked at a hair-dressing parlor before the Depression and had a barbecue stand until she got mixed up with the wrong man. This is showing that Madam was paving her own way without the help of a man. She is showing her independence" (Aron 10/31/96).
• "'Madam's Calling Cards' is a poem about Madam getting some cards with her name on them. . . . She may want to see her name in print because that is permanent; thus, she can gain some respect with society" (Aron 10/31/96).
• "I'm madam to you!" declares Alberta K. Johnson to a stubborn census taker. But what does this exclamation represent? First of all, it depicts Langston Hughes's use of dialogue. Often, the characters of his poetry have something to say to their antagonist. The statement is frequently hostile, representing anger and frustration: "You are my son! Like hell!" the speaker exclaims in "Mulatto." Other times, however, the tone is not as fierce: "'Scuse me, I didn't mean to stump ma toe on you lady," apologizes the speaker in "Magnolia Flowers." This use of dialogue is very effective in depicting the emotion of the characters of the poems. Through her comments, the character of Alberta is developed a great deal" (Lasher 10/31/96).
• "This part seems to be a huge celebration of the African American woman. She seems superhuman in a way, as she stands up to the phone company, the rent man, Reverend Butler, the census man, and even death. I do not think it is a coincidence that all the people she tells off are males, as she strikes me as a bit of a feminist" (Ryan 10/30/96).
• "Madam and the Census Man": "She is struggling for the census man to get her name spelled correctly, which we know, underlyingly, implies a feeling of finding one's self" (Edwards 11/.12/96).
• "Alberta K. Johnson is the kind of woman so often portrayed as a simple-minded nonentity. What Hughes has done, in effect, is to turn the stereotype inside out. Alberta is bright, strong, knows who she is, and insists on her identity. To the reader, she stands on her dignity, demands respect: she is 'Madam' to him" (Premakumar 10/30/96).

Montage of a Dream Deferred

• What is a montage? In what way is this section a montage?
• Why is it important to understand the historical and cultural context of these poems?
• What is distinctive about the rhymes in "Children's Rhymes"?
• Why does the speaker of "Croon" say "I don't give a damn / For Alabam' / Even if it is my home"?
• Describe the movement in "Not a Movie."
• Why does the speaker of "Dead in There" struggle to accept the death of certain men?
• What point does the speaker make in "Green Memory"?
• Why does the landlord come out on top in "Ballad of the Landlord"? Interpret the landlord's accusation: "He's trying to ruin the government / And overturn the land!" Why would the police side with the landlord?
• How does the speaker treat race in "Theme for English B"?
• What is the effect of the imagery in "College Formal: Renaissance Casino"?
• Why does the speaker of "Likewise" say: "Sometimes I think / Jews must have heard / the music of a / dream deferred"? What is the significance of the title?
• "Harlem" is Hughes' most famous poem? Why? Interpret the metaphors in the poem. What does Hughes mean by "a dream deferred"?

Bibliography

• Berry, Faith. Langston Hughes: Before and Beyond Harlem. 1983.
• Meltzer, Milton. Langston Hughes: A Biography. 1968.
• Rampersad, Arnold. The Life of Langston Hughes. 1986, 1988.

• Onwuchekwa, Jemie. Langston Hughes: An Introduction to the Poetry. 1977.

Interpretation of works

• Aron, Chad. Journal for English 28. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. October 31, 1996.
• Barham, Susan. Journal for English 28. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. October 31, 1996.
• Brooks, Robbie. Journal for English 28. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. October 31, 1996.
• Catt, Cynthia. Journal for English 28. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. October 29, 1996.
• Edwards, Wesley. Journal for English 28. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. November 12, 1996.
• Hundley, Ann. Journal for English 28. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. October 31, 1996.
• Lasher, Todd. Journal for English 28. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. October 31, 1996.
• Premakumar, Raj. Journal for English 28. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. October 30, 1996.
• Ryan, Cory. Journal for English 28. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. October 31, 1996.

• Hughes, Langston. Selected Poems of Langston Hughes. New York: Vintage, 1959.