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ScienceBy Wesley Blake, James C. Jacobs, Debbie Edwards, and Ryan CalderStudents, University of North Carolina at Pembroke The years of 1865-1913 was a time of scientific expansion and discovery. John Burnham editor of Science in America observed, "Science developed from a philosophical diversion into a specialized occupation" (66). Many cities were part of this expansion, but the major ones were Boston, Philadelphia, and New York. During this time of discovery many inventions were made. For example, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone, Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, and the Wright brothers flew the first aircraft. During this time, science and religion were two separate fields. According to Burnham, "The orthodox were careful to make sure that science stayed in the hands of their own" (67). Science suffered many attacks during the nineteenth century. Burnham goes on to say, "the main focus of the attacks was eighteenth century Deism and rationalism" (67). Also, conflicts arose between the Orthodox church and Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. As a result of these conflicts, science separated into a specialized profession and an independent philosophy. Despite these changes, the field of science had many triumphs. According to Burnham, "Famous discoveries were made such as the periodic table of the elements, Faraday's discoveries leading to dynamo, radioactivity, the physiochemical basis of physiology and two theories -the atomic theory and the theory of evolution" (66). James Dana discovered that mountains were formed when the earth was compacted horizontally. Furthermore, many specialized schools of the sciences were being taught in universities as a major area of study. In 1876, the John Hopkins University was founded. While men were making many discoveries during postbellum America, some women were joining the ranks. Annie Jump Cannon was the most famous female American astronomer during her day. She discovered three hundred different stars in 1924. Edward Pickering and Williamina Fleming are credited for a system on classifying stars in 1890. Mrs. Cannon reworked their system into ten different sections. In 1901, she published a catalogue of over one thousand stars. According to David Abbot, Ph.D., editor of Astronomers, "Her interest lay primarily in the description of the stars as they were observed; her legacy to astronomy was a vast body of accurate and carefully compiled information" (32). Furthermore, science inventors took
center stage in the development of new inventions. Among them was Lee De
Forest, "father of radio", who invented the thermionic grid triode. This
invention led to advancements in both radio and telecommunications. In
1912, Forest's achievements were rewarded by him becoming charter member
(later president) of the Institute of Radio Engineers.
In conclusion, the nineteenth century
was a challenging time for the scientific world. Science had many criticisms
and attacks from the religious societies. Science rose above these oppositions
to become a prominent area of study and discovery. Many of the discoveries
and inventions provided the way for an easier lifestyle for Americans
today.
BibliographyBurnham, John C. ed. Science in America: Historical Selections. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1971.Although dated, this book thoroughly covers the history of science in America from the seventeenth century to the early 1970s. In part two, it discusses the various components of science and those who played an important role in the development of science during the nineteenth century. This book is credible because the editor uses bibliographical notes in the selections. He credits the collection of his research to many scholars, including Samuel T. Suratt, formerly of The Smithsonian Institute. The editor of this book has also authored a book, How Superstition Won and Science Lost: Popularizing Science and Health in the United States. Bordley, James III., and A. McGehee Harvey. Two Centuries of American Medicine. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 1976. Two Centuries of American Medicine focuses on medical practices after the Civil War. For example, the book states that a doctor did many different jobs -he was a physician, surgeon, veterinarian, obstetrician, dentist, and a pharmacist. It also lists some advances in the medical field such as anesthesia, now being used in surgical operations and the standards of medical schools were raised in 1876 by the Provisional Association of American Medical Colleges. This book is credible because it is written by two doctors and they are well versed in the history of the medical profession. This book is timely in that it was printed in 1976 and is accurate in portraying medical advances. Magill, Frank N. Great Scientists. Connecticut: Grolier Educational Corporation, 1989. The Great Scientists is a volume of twelve books that list great men and women of science who have made lasting contributions to science. Written in 1989, the volume is recent and up to date. Magill has over ten novels to his credit. Abbot, David. ed. Astronomers. New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 1984. This book gives a long list about some of the great astronomers of the past and present. This book list some of the best sources on scientists and astronomers. The biography work is very precise and to the point. All the scientists listed were the best in their field. The publisher of Peter Bedrick Books did a good job on this book. The editor has a Ph.D. Women in Science from the Antiquity through the Nineteenth Century |
Grove Karl GilbertAnnie Jump CannonPeople
1865: Bell invented the telephone
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Grove Karl GilbertBy Debbie EdwardsStudent, University of North Carolina at Pembroke The years of 1866-1913 were an exciting time of scientific expansion and discovery. Many scientists made death defying efforts to accomplish their goals and ambitions. In the field of geology this meant surviving against the forces of nature. Many geologists wanted to explore and solve Earth's puzzling questions. Grove K. Gilbert was very prominent among them. Grove "Karl" Gilbert was born in 1843 in Rochester, New York. As a child, he was brilliant, inquisitive, and attentive. Karl's childhood hobbies for solving mysteries, reading, and boating prepared the way for his life's work. After graduation from high school at the age of 15, Karl went on to the University of Rochester. Ironically, he did not develop an interest for geology. Stephen J. Pyne, author of Certain Allied Problems in Mechanics: Grove Karl Gilbert at the Henry Mountains, remarks: "Upon graduating from college, he (Karl) had found engineering more interesting than geology" (qtd. in Schneer 227). While attending the University, Karl had one course in geology. Henry A. Ward, who founded Ward's Natural Science Establishment (Cosmos Hall), was Karl's professor. In 1862, Karl graduated from college. According to Joanne Bourgeois, during the Civil War, Karl did not enlist, nor was he drafted; presumably because his stature was frail and he was not bent towards war (5 par). Bourgeois goes on to say: "He found work at Ward's Cosmos Hall, where for the next five years (1863-1868) he catalogued samples, and, as he gained experience, collected specimens and helped mount exhibits in museums" (6 par). Karl was given the opportunity to be in charge of a mastodon excavation on the Mohawk River in Boston. Subsequently in New York, Karl examined other fossil exhibits, where he had the privilege to meet with professional geologists. Bourgeois mentions that, "Gilbert was more interested in physical geology than in paleotology" (7 par). Gilbert published his first two publications about the mastodon excavation and a technical report on the potholes. In 1869, he was offered a volunteer position to work at a second geological survey of Ohio. Bourgeois comments, that the director of the survey, J.S. Newberry, was so impressed with Gilbert's work that he hired Gilbert the following year (8 par). In 1871, Gilbert was hired by Lieutenant G.M. Wheeler to be one of the six geologists to form the Wheeler geographical survey. Later in 1874, Gilbert moved to the Powell survey. In 1879, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) was formed from the surveys of Powell, Wheeler, Hayden, and King (Bourgeois 9 par). Grove Karl Gilbert made lasting contributions to the field of geology. According to Mott T. Greene, author of Geology in the Nineteenth Century, Gilbert came up with "the idea of zones of diverse displacement (by faulting) and the differentiation of folded and block-faulted mountains" (191). According to Stephen J. Pyne, Gilbert was a prominent explorer, president of the U.S. Geological Survey for two terms (1892 and 1909), and he authored several "monographs including Geology of the Henry Mountains, Lake Bonneville, Hydraulic Mining Debris in the Sierra Nevada, and The Transportation of Debris by Running Water" (225). Bourgeois states that Gilbert was popular for "quantitative techniques to physiographic problems" (12 par). Grove Karl Gilbert lived a life of adventure and scientific exploration.
His brilliant, inquisitive, and observant lifestyle as a child helped pave
the way to an exciting career in geology. His many contributions to science
distinguished him as being one of the most influential geologists of his
time.
BibliographyBourgeois, Joanne. Model Survey Geologist G.K. Gilbert. Rpt. GSA Today Feb. 1998. 13pars. U of Washington. 29 Sept. 1999 <http://geoclio.st.usm.edu/gilbert.html>.This fairly recent scholarly magazine article provides a clear understanding of the life of Grove K. Gilbert. The article comes from a credible source, The Geological Society of America. Bourgeois uses reference sources for her illustrations and she provides references for further reading. Also, she included Gilbert's own testimony of his childhood experiences. Greene, Mott T. Geology in the Nineteenth Century: Changing Views of a Changing World. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1982. Although dated, this book furnishes insightful information about geology in the nineteenth century. It covers geological theories, geological controversies, and famous geologists. It also provides detailed illustrations and maps. Greene has a credible career record as a professor, editor, and lecturer of science. He has written several books and essays, including Myths or Nature and the Nature of Myths: Essays on Natural Knowledge in Pre-Classical Antiquity. Schneer, Cecil J., ed. Two Hundred Years of Geology in America. New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 1979. This somewhat dated scholarly book, covers articles pertaining to the history, evolution, institutions, and surveys of geology. These articles are very credible by authors of various scholarly affiliations, including a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and a member from the Office of the Historian U.S. Geological Survey. Each chapter contains several reference notes that the authors used to write their articles. Also, this book contains geographical maps, charts, and pictures. It is a great source for learning about the various components of geology during postbellum America. |
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Annie Jump CannonBy James C. JacobsStudent at University of North Carolina at Pembroke During this remarkable astronomers life Cannon was the foremost expert on stellar spectrum. She identified stars with amazing speed . Her work was also extremely accurate. The editors of Notable Women in Sciences had this to say about Cannon and her work. Cannon was born on December 11,1863, in Dover,Delaware,and was the eldest child of prosperous ship-builder,merchant,and state senator Wilson Lee Cannon and his wife,Mary Elizabeth. Annie had two younger brothers and a number of older half - siblings. She learned her love of astronomy through her mother,who spent time on the house roof showing Annie the constellations. She was educated in the Dover puplic schools system and studied physics at Wellesley College as a student of famed physics and astronomy professor Sarah Whiting (Sheare 36) . In 1884 Cannon graduated from Wellesley College and then came back to Delaware. She began playing the piano,and also did a lot of traveling which in turn helped her write a book . During her travels she lost her hearing due to a serious fever.When Cannon's mother died in 1894 she returned to Wellesley,and started studying science again. Later she became the assistant for Whiting. The next year she got seriously interested in astronomy. Later at Radcliff she became a student,with the help of an observatory director at Harvard Collage.She spent most of her off time studying and observing the stars in the observatory. Two years later she joined the HCO until she died. One of Cannon's first jobs after joining the HCO was to make notes on different stars in the south,and then classify their spectrum - which she then compared to astronomer Antonia Maurys stars from the north. Cannon after doing this for some time began to notice that she could do this in a different way.The way she did it was, she changed Flamings classes,did away with Maurys line width,and then inserted numbers to make subclasses inside a spectrum.Cannon had a system which enabled her to classify over 1,122 different stars. Cannon published her work in a catalogue she titled "Spectra of Bright Southern Stars "(37). One of Cannon's good friends said that her work is a real treasure house of info-on stellar spectrum.Cannon's system was so easy to use it was adopted by many Universities across the nation. In 1903 Cannon had classified over 1,227 different stars . In 1911 Cannon was the official Curator of the stars at Harvard University.
Her next job was to revise stars which had a magnitude of 8. As one might
expect this became her major work . Very soon afterwards she had classified
over 350,000 different stars. At this point in her work Cannon could
classify around 300 different stars per hour and not loose one. No single
person has ever duplicated Cannon's speed and work,she had gotten so good
she could class a star just by looking at it on a photograph. The editors
of Encyclopedia Britannica had this to say about Cannon. She also discovered
many variable stars and five novae ( Encyclopedia Britannica Online1 )
.Marilyn Bailey the author of Women in Science had this say about Cannon.
At the age of 77 this famed Astronomer died of heart failure in Cambridge
Massachusetts. Her death was a great lost to the world of astronomy.(Oqilvie
51).
Bibliography"Cannon, Annie Jump"Encyclopedia Britannica Online. http://www.eb.com> 9/28/99 8:15 pmEncyclopedia Britannica online gives a quick and brief statement about Cannon . It tells about her work as a scientist , some discoveries , also her birth and death with dates . This is a number one source of information. Almost anything you need to know or find out about you can find it in the here.Shearer ,Benjamin F and Barbara Shearer , eds Notable Women in Sciences . 88 post road west : West Port , CT ,1997 This is a husband and wife team of editors . They go to in some really good detail about Mrs. . Cannon . When reading about any one of the 96 different women they have listed you get the felling that you know some of them . These people really did their homework. Benjamin F.Shearer is vice President for student life at Neumann College in Aston,Pennsylvania. Barbara S. Shearer is Director of Public Services and External Relations at the Scott Memorial Library,Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia.Ogilvie , Marilyn Bailey . Women in Science .Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1986 Ogilvie gives a historical view of women in science . She deals only on what these women did in their field of work . She also tells about their life in detail . . |
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