Music

American music during the antebellum period flourished due to a variety of cultural developments.  During this period the number of professional musicians in America increased significantly.  In 1793, Philip Roth and Philip Phile, both Americans, wrote several patriotic songs, including "The President's March."  Born in 1819, Samuel Parkman became a noted composer as well as choral conductor and organist for a church in Boston.  Included in Parkman's published works were cantatas, part-songs, and anthems.  In 1859, George Frederick Root, a composer from Chicago, wrote national songs, including "The Battle Cry" and "Tramp, Tramp, Tramp."  Writing cantatas was another of Root's accomplishments.  Stephen Collins Foster emerged in the latter part of the period in Pennsylvania.  He did a great deal of study at Jefferson College and the Academy at Athens.  "Swanee Riber" was only one of the 175 songs that he composed. Two the most famous composers of minstrel-show songs were Foster and Daniel Decatur Emmett, best known for his song "Dixie." Composing patriotic and religious music, foreign opera, compositions, and folk music allowed these composers to conform to popular forms of the antebellum period. Background patriotic music was one of the most popular musical forms during the antebellum and Civil War years.  This type of music inspired and motivated hundreds of soldiers along their hard long journey to war.  Tunes such as “Chester,” written by William Billings, "The Star-Spangled Banner,” written by Francis Scott Key, and “Yankee Doodle,” attributed to Dr. Richard Schuckburg, were among the favorites.  Religious music also inspired many townspeople.  Most of the tunes came from the Book of Psalms in the Bible.  Also, Catholic hymns sung in the church were a major type within the religious form.  Foreign opera and composition were also popular in America. This type of music exhibited elegance, superiority, and a high-class taste that could only feed the very best of Americans.  During the antebellum era people came to appreciate fine music even though Americans did not compose it.  Folk music, used to entertain people and to lift their spirits, emerged at this time. This type of music inspired lively participation; listeners sometimes shook, clapped their hands, and stomped their feet.  Another popular style throughout the 19th century was blackface minstrelsy, also known as "burnt-cork" minstresly.  Blackface minstresly was performed by white entertainers who masqueraded as black people and played bogus "Negro" songs that were influenced mainly by the banjo tunes of blacks on southern plantations.  Along with written music, musical instruments played a major role in antebellum America.  Among the most common instruments were brass.  Civil War brass horn  instruments were classified into four categories.  The shape of the instruments and the direction of the bell generally determined  these categories.  The four general categories were bell front, upright, circular, and the over-the-shoulder.  The brass instruments were further classified by the type of valve mechanism used.  The two most common sub-classifications were the “American string linkage rotary valve,” which consisted of the top and side action, and the “berliner piston valve."  The berliner piston valve was the most frequently used because it was inexpensive to produce and less likely to be damaged.  The material used to make these Civil War horns mainly consisted of brass and German silver.   As a whole, music in the antebellum period contributed a great deal to cultural landmarks in society.  Established in 1842, the New York Philharmonic Society was the first permanent symphony orchestra. The first Italian style grand opera with English lyrics was composed by William Henry Fry in 1845.  Furthermore, Amy Marcy Beach was the first American female to write a symphony.  Other noted events during this time period included the publication of several hundred "tune-books" in New England.  Each contained a variety of different types of music, including evangelical hymns, spiritual songs, anthems, paraphrases of the psalms of David, and some patriotic songs.  Music  truly was an intregal part of the culture in antebellum and Civil War America.  
 

Bibliography

Detheridge's Music Composers presents a timeline of  composers from A.D. 1000 through 1900, along with information about several composers' lives and works. Detheridge has researched many deceased composers as well as gathering information from living composers themselves. 

The Encyclopedia of American History features information about antebellum music, discussing a variety of types, including religious music, opera, symphonic music, and patriotic music. 

This secondary source places emphasis on  music instruments and military bands used during the era of the Civil War.  It specifically concentrates on the origin of these instruments and their different category groupings. Although this book was written in 1985, it provides relevant information pertaining to the history of music during the Civil War era.  Because the Civil War ended more than a century ago, the book is sufficiently timely. Garofalo is a professor of music and conductor of wind ensembles at the School of Music, The Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C.  He has a master’s degree and a doctorate in musicology from Catholic University.  He is the author of several books, articles, and publications in the field of instrumental music performance, pedagogy, and history.  He has also recorded two albums of Civil War military brass band music.  Mark Elrod is a graduate of Valley Forge Military Academy and Salem College.  He is a Vietnam veteran and is an authority on American bands, instruments, and music of the nineteenth century.  He collects Civil War era band music and musical instruments and isconsidered to have one of the largest collections of its type in the United States.

• Patriotic music
• Blackface minstrelsy
• Black music

• John Antes
• Amy Beach 
• Supply Belcher 
• George Bristow 
• John Dwight 
• Daniel Emmett 
• Stephen Foster 
• William Fry 
• Benjamin Grehorne
• Henry & Steinway 
• Francis Hopkinson 
• Francis Scott Key 
• George Frederick Root 

Events 

Places 

• Music School of Boston 

Instruments 

• Banjo
• Drum

Patriotic Music 

In antebellum America many people expressed their love of their country through a variety of patriotic songs. According to John Howard and George Bellows, authors of Music in America, the many songs that were written resulted from the "many skirmishes and battles of the colonies--even as far back as the French and Indian War" (59). Many noted composers of these tunes had ties with the wars that were occuring. William Shakespear Hays, composer of "The Drummer Boy of Shiloh," was simply ready for the war to end and the country to return to peace. Charles Carroll Sawyer, who focused primarily on soldiers' mothers, wrote "Who Will Care for Mother Now," as well as "I Dreamed My Boy Was Home Again." Another composer who viewed the war extremely seriously was Walter Kittridge. After accepting a draft notice he composed "Tenting on the Old Camp Ground." Patrick S. Gilmore was a composer strongly concerned with the Union victory. His song "When Johhny Comes Marching Home Again" described such an event. Other noted patriotic composers of this time period were Septimus Winner, John Hill Hewitt, Benjamin Russell Hanby, and Luther Orlando Emerson. Like the composers, many of the famous patriotic tunes had ties to the wars.  This music of war began soon after the colonization of the British. Some patriotic tunes favored a religious theme while others were secular. Parodies, set to familiar tunes, were among the many songs that were often sung by the enemy. In addition, after historical war events such as defeats of generals and the boycot of English Tea, numerous ballads evolved. Ranking high in honor, these songs were appropriate in the battlefield, among the public, and in the church.  The "Yankee," a symbol of America as a new nation during the Revolutionary War , was characterized in the song "Yankee Doodle." On a night in April 1775, British troops marched to the beat of "Yankee Doodle" as they set out to capture Samuel Adams and John Hancock. From this moment on, this was to be an American patriotic song. "Hail Columbia," one of the most noted anthems, originated while France and America were on the verge of battle. This song, along with the "President's March," was performed in the presence of George Washington at this time to emphasize America's patriotism. America's undying song, "The Star-Spangled Banner," composed by Francis Scott Key, came to life after the battle of 1812. To the tune of "To Anacreon Heav'n," the verses of the "The Star-Spangled Banner" were hurriedly sketched as Key saw the faint outlines of the Stars and Stripes that remained flying. Interestingly, this song was later rewritten as "The Southern Cross." Julia Ward Howe, an abolitionist and writer of "The Battle Hymn of the Republic," was successful at saving this song from destruction. Howard and Bellows recount how Howe heard troops "murder" this song. Having heard only a few lines, she rewrote the anthem with inspiring versus which begun: "Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord" (133). "Dixie," another famous patriotic tune, began as a walk-around song for minstrel shows. Written by Daniel Decatur Emmett, this song became symbolic of the Confederate States of America, as well as carefree America. "America" differs from most other patriotic songs in that it does not address war and is solely a national hymn. It was adapted from the English tune "God Save the King." "America" was written by Samuel Francis Smith in 1831. John Howard, author of Our American Music, reveals that Smith was unaware that he had written a true national hymn (128).  Furthermore, patriotic music composed from 1784-1865 portrayed aspects of people during this period. Many of the songs were used to express feelings of fear toward the wars. Others resembled the battles themselves, revealing the opposing views of the warring parties. Other music included songs of bereavement or celebration. Furthermore, mere entertainment was a way in which some of the tunes were used. Lastly, patriotic music served to remind people of what their soldiers were fighting for-- their country's freedom, a vital aspect of life in antebellum America.   

Bibliography   

Bowman, Kent. Voices of Combat. New York: Greenwood Press, 1987.  

People

• Stephen Foster 
• Benjamin Russell Hanby  
• Julia Ward Howe  
• Andrew Law  
• George Frederick Root 
• Charles Carroll Sawyer 
• Henry Clay Work 

Events 

Places 

• Yorktown, Virginia  
• North Redding, Massachusetts 

Drums in the Civil War Era  

Drums were an essential part of the Civil War and played a leading role in field military bands.  In his book, Military Music of the American Revolution, Raoul Camus explains that music was an important part of motivation to the troops during, before, and after conflicts on the battlefields (3).  Many soldiers started as field musician drummers at what we would consider to be a very young age.  Kenneth E. Olson, who is a specialist in the study of American music, says: "Parents . . . actually encouraged younger sons to enlist and boys sixteen and under were accepted almost without question as field musicians" (84).  Although drum manufacturing was already a well-established industry by the start of the Civil War, the demand for drums and other percussion instruments greatly increased during the war.  The U.S. Army records showed that over 32,000 drums were purchased between 1861 and 1865.  The profit base of drums became so great that many individuals and companies became involved in the making, distribution, and selling of drums during the Civil War period.  The great majority of the drum manufacturers were located in the Northeastern part of the United States.  Boston, Philadelphia, and New York were three of the major cities that manufactured and established trade centers for drums.  In particular, three of the major drum manufacturers of that time period--C & F Soistmann, Ernst Vogt, and Horstmann Brothers--were based in Philadelphia.  It was not uncommon to see their labels affixed to drums during that period.   

The typical drum section of a Civil War brass band normally had three instruments.  They were the rope tension (side) snare drum, the bass drum, and the cymbals.  The rope tension snare drums were made of the skin of an animal's head stretched over the open end of a cylinder-shaped wooden shell.  The edge of the skin was soaked and then lapped (tucked) around circular flesh hoops.  The flesh hoops were held in place by wooden counter hoops, and the tension of the wooden counter-hoops controlled the tension on the heads.  They used leather braces, known as "ears," to adjust the tension.  The shell of the rope tension drum was made of several different types of plywood.  Ash, rosewood, white holly, and maple are a few examples of the different types.  The top head of the snare drum that is beaten is known as the "batter head."  The bottom of the drum was known as the "snare head."  The snare head of the drum consisted of several strands of catgut or rawhide, which was known as the snare.  There were usually 4 to 6 strands within a snare, and the snare stretched closely together across the center of the bottom of the drum head.  Although both the rawhide and catgut strands were considered good material to make a strand, the rawhide was more preferred because it did not lose any of its effect from adverse weather conditions, whereas wet weather would cause catgut strands to contract and alter the vibrating effect of the snare.  The thickness of the skin head and snares affected the sound of snare drums.  The match of the batter head and the snare head can also be an influential factor in the sound of the drum.  Robert Garofalo and Mark Elrod explain: "Although a properly adjusted drum could be very crisp and taut, the least amount of dampness changes the tension of the head, and it didn't take much humidity to make the drum very deep and soggy sounding" (37).  Another type of tension drum was the "rod-tension drum."  This drum was introduced in the early part of the 1830's in Europe and was extremely rare in the United States during the Civil War era.  Rod-tension drums were not popular in America until the 1870's.  The typical snare drum's shell measured between 15 to 16 inches in diameter and 10 to 12 inches deep.   Snare drum sticks were normally made of dark wood.  Rosewood, ebony, or cocobolo were the main types of wood used in forming the snare drumsticks.  The sticks were usually tapered from the butt end to the tip, or playing end.  Bass drums during the Civil War were large compared to the bass drums of modern time.  During that time the bass drum was referred to as a "barrel drum," mainly because of its bulky size.  It measured about 24" x 24" and normally caused the bass drummer problems when handling it because of its weight and bulky size.   Olson explains: "Wartime bass drum sticks had heavy wooden shafts topped with leather-covered cotton balls"  (260). A military drums usually had a picture of an eagle affixed to it.  The specific size and design of the eagle was different from drum to drum. Army guidelines stated  that the military drums were to be painted with the arms of the United States on a blue field for an infantry unit and on a red field for an artillery unit.  Crash cymbals were also used in military bands during the Civil War era.  According to a yearly band instrument catalogue by John F. Stratton company in the 1860's and 1870's, cymbals used during that time were much smaller than modern cymbals.  The catalogue indicated that the size of the cymbals ranged from 12 to 14 inches in  increments of half  an inch.  Cymbals were attached to wooden handles or leather thongs.    
 

Bibliography 

Garofalo, Robert, and Mark Elrod.  Civil War Era Musical Instruments & Military Bands. Charleston, WV: Pictorial Histories, 1985. 

This book is a secondary source written by two well-qualified individuals.  The source provides timely information for the time period of the topic that is covered.  This source has extremely well-established information concerning musical instruments, as well as the different types and manufacturers of these instruments during the antebellum and Civil War eras.  Garofalo is a professor of music, and Elrod is an authority on 19th-century American bands, instruments, and music.

This book is a secondary source.  It provides timely information and goes into detail about the different aspects of music during the American Revolution.  The author uses many different types of sources, including published work and manuscript materials.  This source also has an appendix with a chronology.

This is a secondary source that gives credit to several established scholars for their assistance in providing relevant and useful information within the text of this book.  This book goes into detail about several regiment bands that served in the Civil War era.  It also gives information about the musical legacy and the different band instruments of the Civil War. 

• Allie Turner
• Augustus Kyle
• Christopher Spencer

• Rope tension snare (side)
• Bass
• Sticks and beaters

• Wooden handle 
• Leather thong handle

• New York, New York
• Boston, Massachusetts
• Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
• Baltimore, Maryland

• C & F Soistmann
• Ernst Vogt
• Horstmann Brothers
• William Boucher
• John F. Stratton Co.
• Union Manufacturing Co.
• Francis Sauer & Co.
• Stratton & Foote

• William Penn Memorial (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania)
• Fort Ward (Alexandria, Virginia)
• U.S. Marine Corps (Washington, D.C.)
• Henry Ford (Detroit, Michigan)
• Smithsonian U.S. National (Washington, D.C.)

Blackface Minstrelsy

People who are unfamiliar with popular entertainment of the 19th century probably would not know what blackface minstrelsy is.  Blackface minstrelsy, which derived its name from the white performers who blackened their faces with burnt cork, was a popular form of entertainment of the 19th century.  In this form of entertainment, whites masquerading as blacks performed songs, dances, and dialect inspired by the blacks on Southern plantations.  However, it wasn't until later that blacks themselves started participating in the minstrel shows.  Blackface minstrelsy was known not only for its lively songs and dances, but also for its infamous use of outlandish stereotypes and offensive dialect.  Examples of these exaggerated stereotypes include characters such as Jim Crow, who in the eyes of white people appeared as a naive, clumsy, devil-may-care southern plantation slave, who dressed in rags.  Another example that represented the white people's idea of a typical black male was a character named Zip Coon or Dandy Jim, who portrayed the urban black as an absurd man who wore a blue coat with tails.  However, not all people agreed with the misrepresentation of black people.  According to information gathered from author Thomas Hampson's PBS World Wide Web site, called I Hear America Singing, Stephen Foster, who was made famous by early songs in minstrelsy, began to do away with any words that were really offensive or trashy in his dialect songs.  He also refused to allow his sheet music to carry pictures that poked fun of blacks, and finally he created songs that depicted blacks with compassion and dignity.  

Blackface minstrelsy should not only be remembered for its dialect, songs, or over-exaggereated stereotypes but also for its historical importance.  According to author Robert C. Toll, in his book Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth-Century America, blackface minstrelsy had its origins after the War of 1812, when America underwent many changes including increases in urban population growth and a "culture shock" that many Americans faced from not having their own distinct culture (3-5).  Everything from literature, art, music, and theater was influenced by Europeans, and this led many Americans to search for something to distinguish themselves from their English brethren.  Ironically,  Toll credits an Englshman named Charles Matthews for helping Americans to fill this gap with his characterizations of blacks in his theatrical productions (26).  Toll notes that Matthews, who was captivated by black music and dialect during his visit to the United States, began transcribing sermons, lore, songs, and speeches, collecting anything that was useful about blacks, and also studying the Negro dialect.  Matthews also became one of the first, if not the first, white man to use Negro material in his acts.  Matthews got the idea for the material after he observed the audience at the African Theater Company in New York City. During the black actor's performance of Hamlet's soliloquy, Matthews overheard the audience demanding the actor stop the soliloquy and instead sing "Possum up a Gum Tree."  Matthews later studied and learned the song and used it in his "A Trip to America" act.  According to Clayton W. Henderson, in the New Grove Dictionary of American Music, when minstrel shows first began, their main purpose was just as an entr'acte in theaters or circuses (247).  However, as their popularity grew, these minstrelsies started to become more independent from the circuses and theaters.  New York City was the birthplace of the minstrel shows and also the place where these shows enjoyed the greatest popularity until the Civil War ended.  New York contained numerous places for minstrel shows, including ten major minstrel houses that thrived during the 1850's, large theaters such as Bowery and Barnum's Museum, showboats that toured around New York, and newly built theaters known as "Ethiopian Opera Houses."   The New Grove Dictionary of American Music states that the classic age of blackface minstelsy lasted from 1840 until 1870; during this period, individual blackface performers began to join with other blackface performers to form duos, trios, and finally quartets.  These troupes became so popular that they went to the White House, where they entertained such presidents as Polk, Filmore, Tyler, and Pierce.  

Blackface minstrelsy helped to produce many successful troupes, talented performers, and  some very popular songs. One of the most successful early performers of the minstrel show was Thomas D. Rice, who became very popular for the song "Jump Jim Crow," which he learned to dance from an old Negro while on tour in 1828.  Rice also helped to develop the minstrel show by increasing the use of black dialect plantation songs , banjo and fiddle music, virtuoso dancing, and crude humor, and he helped to establish a better sense of organization. In his Web site, Thomas Hampson speaks of another very talented performer of blackface minstrelsy: Daniel Decatur Emmett, a talented fiddler, singer, banjoist, comedian, and author of plays and songs for the minstrel show.  Emmett was also a member of a popular minstrel group called the Virginia Minstrels and the composer of the famous pro- Southern walk-around called "Dixie."  White performers were not the only ones to achieve success from blackface minstrelsy; blacks benefited, as well.  Two of the most famous blacks to emerge from minstrelsy were James Bland and William Henry Lane, or "Master Juba."  Bland became the first successful African-American songwriter; "Carry Me Back To Old Virginny" is one of his most famous songs.  William Henry Lane, or "Master Juba," was a very talented dancer who was praised by critics such as Charles Dickens for his unique, lively dances that combined a European dance with African tradition to form his own distinctive style.  

Much of the music that was performed by the blackface performers contained melodies that had orignated in Britain. Some examples of  these melodies and their origins include such songs as "Jim Crow," which resembled an Irish fok tune and an English stage song; "My Long Tail Blue," which had a melody similar to a Scottish folk song; and "Gumbo Chaff," which had a melody identical to that of an English song called "Bow Wow Wow."  One of the most popular blackface groups was the Virginia Minstrels, which took on its name to enhance the authenticity of the group.  The quartet--which consisted of Emmett, Billy Whitlock, Dick Pelham, and Frank Bower--was a unique group of individuals who knew how to get the audience involved in their show, whether it was by whistling, stomping their feet, or shouting along.  Clayton Henderson credits the Virginia Minstrels for setting down the foundation for other groups to follow by presenting a new style for the other troupes to adapt to their shows. In this new style the quartet would gather around in a semicircle with the man playing the tambourine sitting across from the man playing the bones, while another person in the group served as both a musician and also as a dancer.  The Virginia Mistrels performed their first show in this new format at the Bowery Amphitheatre in New York on Febuary 6, 1843.  

Bibliography

This World Wide Web site offers some very useful and interesting information about blackface minstrelsy.  Some of the information it gives includes some of the famous black people, such as James Bland, who became the first famous African-American songwriter.  It also speaks of some famous black minstrel groups, including the Fisk Jubilee Singers and the Hampton Singers. There is a really good timeline that provides information on important people and events during that time. While there, you can click on one of the people on the timeline image and see information on them and their careers.  The information on this site is timely, and, since it is associated with PBS, it is credible.

This book provides some very interesting information about blackface minstrelsy from its history to the people who played a significant role in it.  Also useful are the dates it listed, along with the names of important minstrel groups and performers of this period. This book is a great source for anyone who wants to know exactly what "blackface minstrelsy" is. Although this book is a little old, the information about the topic is interesting and very reliable. 

This is to be the most reliable and useful of the sources listed here.  This book not only tells about the history of blackface minstrelsy, but also describes the people who played a significant role in it.   It explains where the melodies to songs such as "Jim Crow" and  "Gumbo Chaff " originated. Although the book was written 25 years ago, the information is very valuable, and it is clear that the author has done a lot of research into this topic.

• P.T. Barnum
• James Bland
• Frank Browner
• Aaron Copland
• George Washington Dixon
• Daniel Decatur Emmett
• Stephen Foster
• William Henry Lane
• Charles Matthews
• Dick Pelham
• Thomas "Daddy" Rice
• Billy Whitlock

1822: Matthews visits America and is influenced by black culture 
1832: Rice introduces his "Jim Crow" routine 
1840-1870: classic age of blackface minstrels 
1843: Virginia Minstrels perform their first entire show in a new format. 
1843: Virginia Minstrels enjoy successful  tour 
1843: original Virginia Minstrels disbands 
1859: Bryants Minstrels present "Dixie" 

Songs  

• "Carry Me Back to Old Virginny"
• "De Boatman Dance"
• "Dixie"
• "Gumbo Chaff "
• "Jim Crow"
• "My Long Tail Blue"
• "Nelly Was A Lady"
• " My Long Tail Blue "
• "Old Dog Tray"
• "Possum Up A Gum Tree"

• Bryants Minstrels
• Christy Minstrels
• Ethiopian Serenaders
• Fisk Jubilee Singers
• Georgia Minstrels
• Hampton Singers
• Virginia Minstrels

• England
• New York, New York
• Barnum Museum (New York)
• Bowery Amphitheatre (New York)

Black Music

Music during the antebellum era was an important factor in life.  One type of music that seems to go unnoticed is black music.  What is black music?  It was often stated that black music is based upon poverty and injustice.  Most of the music did refer to what the black community was enduring, which was pain and suffering. But black music expresses not only negative aspects of life, but also many optimistic views.  Black music has many different types of forms, such as black folk songs, hymns, inspirational music, and spirituals.  

Mancel Warrick defines folk music as the traditional music of a people, race, or nation. Warrick also states that folk tunes are often in a continual process of change (8).  That is, each ethnic background  influences the way that music is presented.  Ethnicity has contributed a great deal, giving each folk song a different flavor and and a different sound. Tunes such as "The Carolina Low Country," written by Newman White, and "Poor Rosy Poor Gal," written by Miss Lucy Mc Kim, are some of the popular tunes that were played during the antebellum years.  

Another type of black music is the spiritual.  Spirituals are sorrow songs from slaves who walked through the path of darkness and the shadow of death.  It is an emotional type of music that expresses the experiences of the black community. Songs such as "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child," arranged by H.T. Burleigh, and "Swing Low, Chariot" are examples of spirituals.  Hymns and inspirational msuci can fit within the same spiritual category, but they do have their differences.  Hymns are songs of praises to God.  This type of music was used mainly within church.  It was also used to give black soldiers the mentality of being secure from all harm when they were fighting in the war.  "Wade in the Water" and "Jesus , Lover of My Soul," written by Charles Wesley, are two of the songs that are commonly sung in church today.  On the other hand, inspirational songs motivate people to try to make life better for themselves.  Songs such as "Just Over in the Glory-Land," written by Jas. W. Acuff, and "Go Down, Moses" help to uplift heavy spirits into hopes, dreams, and aspirations to live another day and to fight for what is right.   

Black music has paved the way for black people to come together and allowed others in different cultures to try to understand cultural differences. Black music is the root to all present and future music that is composed today, and it will always be remembered.   
  

Bibliography

This book is a secondary source that gives many definitions on what types of black music were present in the early years and why they were used, giving examples of songs.

This was a secondary source that refers to black American music from different eras.  Southern mentions many famous performers and the popular songs  in each decade.  Southern has edited many other books, written essays, and compiled other works.  She has also written many books, such as Readings in Black American Music, The Buxheim Organ Book, Biographical Dictionary of Afro-American and African Music, and The Music of Black Americans 1971,1983,1997.

This secondary source explains the types of tunes that were developed and used during the antebellum era and Civil War. 

People

• Andrew Law
• Charles Wesley
• Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield
• Frank Johnson
• Harry T. Burleigh
• Jas. W. Acuff
• John Ferguson
• J. Rosamond Johnson
• Lucy Mc Kim Garrison
• Newport Gardner
• Richard Allen

Chronology